MANAGEMENT PLANNING AND CONTROL
A. Four
Dimensions In Business Modeling
§ Model
The model is a
simplification (abstraction) of something. The model represents the number
of objects or activities referred to the entity (entity). Managers use
models to solve problems.
The types of models. There
are four basic models, namely:
1. Physical Model
Is a depiction of an entity
in the form of three dimensions. Physical models used in the world shopping
center business includes mockups, or prototypes of new models. Physical models to help a
cause that can not be fulfilled by the real object. For example shopping
center investors and auto makers can make some changes to be cheaper through
the design of the physical model were compared with the final product.
2. Narrative
Model
Describe the entity either
orally or in writing. All business communications is a model of narrative,
so the model of narrative is the most popular models. This model is often
used by managers, but rarely recognized as a model.
3. Graph
Model
Describe entities with
line number, symbol or shape. Graphical models used in business to
communicate information. Many company's annual report to shareholders
contains color graphics to convey the company's financial condition. Graphs
are also used to communicate information to managers.
Graph model is also used
in the design of information systems. Many tools used by programmers and
system analysis is the chart. An example flow chart (flowchart) and data
flow diagrams (data flow diagram - DFD).
4. Mathematical
Model
Most of the attention in
the modeling business (business modeling) is currently focused on mathematical
models. All mathematical formula or equation is a mathematical model. Mathematical
models used by business managers are generally no more complicated than the
models commonly used in mathematics.
Excellence is the accuracy
of mathematical models in explaining the relationship between different parts
of an object and provides predictive capability. Mathematics can handle relationships
more dimension than the model of which only two dimention graphs or
three-dimensional physical models. For mathematicians and managers are
aware of the complexity of business systems, the ability of multidimensional
mathematical models are valuable capital.
Usefulness of the four
basic types of models have their uses as follows:
a. Facilitate understanding
(Comprehension)
A model would be simpler than the entity. Entity is more easily understood
if the elements and presented in a simple relationship. In the physical
model can only describe the shape of the object to be studied. In the
model of narrative, the narrative can be processed into an overview. In
the model graphs, charts can only show the main relationships, and on
mathematical models, mathematical equations contain only the primary elements. But
in any case, made an attempt to present a model in a simple form. After
the simple models are understood, the model can be gradually made more complex
so it can more accurately describe the entity. In any case, the model
still only describe the entity and is never exactly the same as the entity.
b. Simplify Communications
After solving the problem
(problem sorver) understand the entity, meaning it often needs to be
communicated to others. Perhaps the analysis of the system must
communicate with the manager or programmer. Or maybe a manager must communicate
with other team of
team problem-solver.
The fourth type of model can communicate information quickly and accurately to
people who know the meaning of various shapes, words, graphs, and mathematical
equations.
c. Estimating Future
Accuracy in describing the
entities making mathematical models can provide capabilities that are not
shared by other types of models. Mathematical models can predict what will
happen in the future, but not one hundred per cent accurate. Because more
data is entered into the model is usually based upon various assumptions, the
manager must use judgment and intuition to evaluate the model.
§ General System Model
The approach taken in this
case is based on the use of computers in business, include all information
systems in all types of organizations, and the means used is a general systems
model of the company.
Physical
Systems
a) Material Flow
Input materials received
from suppliers of raw materials and component assemblies. This material is stored in
storage until needed in the transformation process. Then, the material is
included in the manufacturing activity. At the end of the transformation
process, the material is now in its finished form, kept in storage until
shipped to customers.
In manufacturing companies, two functional areas involved in the material flow. Manufacturing functions to
change raw materials into finished goods, and the marketing function is to
distribute the finished products to customers. Both of these fields must
work together to facilitate the flow of material.
b) Personnel Flow
Personnel input from the
environment. Prospective employees from the local community and possibly
from rival unions. Personnel input is normally processed by the human
resources function, and then assigned to various functional areas. When in
the field, the employees involved in the process of transformation, either
directly or indirectly. Human resources function also processes employee
dismissal (resignation, severance, or retirement), and these resources are
returned to the environment.
c) Flow Machine
Machines obtained from the
supplier, and is usually in the company for long-term (3-20 years or more). However,
eventually all the machines are returned to the environment in the form of
trade up to new models, or as scrap. The machines are used continuously,
rarely kept away. Due to the specific sources of supply, without storage,
and disposal pathways special well, so the current machine is a physical resource of
the most direct. However, flow control machines
scattered across various functional areas of the machine.
d) Money Flow
The money is mainly
obtained from the owners, who provide investment capital, and from corporate
customers who provide the sales revenue. Other sources include financial
institutions, which provide loans and interest on an investment, as well as
from of government, which provide money in loans and aid. Responsibility
for controlling the flow of money just to be on the finance function.
Flow of money through
companies rarely involve money in physical form. In contrast, the flow is
something that represents money (check, credit card slip, transactions in
electronic form). Only at the retail level of cash actually changes hands.
Because the flow of money
to connect the company with financial institutions, customers, suppliers,
shareholders, employees, and government.
Conceptual
System
Most of the open system
can control its own operations. Control is achieved by using a circle
contained in the system. The circle is called a feedback loop, which
provides a pathway for signals from the system to the control mechanism and
vice versa. Control mechanism is a kind of tool that uses a feedback
signal to evaluate the performance of the system and determine whether
corrective action needs to be done.
1. Open
Circle System
Is a loop system without
feedback or control mechanism. Figure 6.1. show open systems and open
loop system at the same time. Only a few companies that use business
concept. These companies are using open systems, but the feedback and
control mecanise not working properly. The
company started on a path and never change direction. If the company loses
control, nothing is done to control the balance. The result is the
destruction of the system (bankruptcy).
2. Closed circle systems
Is a system that has a
feedback loop and control mechanisms. The system can control its output by
making adjustments in its input.
Management
Control
Feedback loop consisting
of the information. Management uses the information as a basis for making
changes in the physical system, (see Figure 6.3). The information
describes the system output. Many types of management reports include
information (such as production volume, cost distribution, and sales analysis). Because
the company's main goal is to produce some kind of output, the output size is
an integral part of the control system.
Information
Processing
The trip information is
not always straight to the manager of the physical system. Most managers
are far away from physical activity. This is especially true in high-level
managers. The manager has to obtain information from a system or procedure
that generates information from data collected. Mechanisms that produce
the information called Information Processing.
Information
Dimensions
When managers determine
which output should be provided information processing, they considered four
basic dimensions of information. These dimensions contribute to the value
of information.
The dimensions of the information
in question, namely:
1. Relevance
Related to the problems
that occur. Managers must be able to choose the required information
without having to read all the information about other subjects.
2. Accuracy
Ideally, all information
must be accurate, but the increased accuracy of the system adds to the cost. For
this reason, managers are forced to accept less than perfect accuracy. The case of payroll
applications, billing and accounts receivable, require 100% accuracy.
3. Timeliness
Information should be
available to solve the problem before crisis situation gets out of control or the opportunity
disappeared. Managers must be able to obtain information that describes
what is happening today, in addition to what has happened in the past.
4. Completeness
Managers must be able to
obtain information that presents a complete picture of a problem or solution. However,
system design managers should not drown in a sea of information. The
term information overload (information overload) acknowledges the dangers of
too much information. Managers must be able to determine the amount of
detail required.
Standard
So that managers can
exercise control over part of its responsibility, there must be two elements:
there must be information that describes what is being achieved in that
section, and there should be a standard of work that reflects what you have
achieved that section.
We can define for as a whole to be achieved
the target system. A system must have at least one goal, but it can also
be a number of purposes. Objectives are usually stated in general. So
that managers can control the system, they need something more specific than
the destination, which can be achieved through standards. Standard work is
an acceptable size, ideally expressed in specific terms.
Managers use the standard
to control the physical system by comparing the actual performance.
Management
by exception
Standard output is
combined with information from the processing of information, allowing managers
to implement management by exception. Management by exception is a style
which is followed by managers, the managers involved in the activity only if
the activity that deviates from acceptable performance. In order for
managers to practice management by exception, should be set standards in the
form of upper and lower limits of acceptable performance.
Management by exception provides
three basic benefits, namely:
a) Managers do not waste time to monitor the activities that take place
normally.
b) Because fewer decisions are made, each decision to obtain a more thorough
attention.
c) Attention is focused on opportunities, and on things that do not run
properly.
But there are also a
number of obstacles that must be known, namely:
1) Some specific types of business performance is not easily determined by the
quantity so that the standard can not be determined.
2) An information system that monitors performance accurately is needed.
3) Attention is directed to the standard must continue to maintain standards at
the right level.
4) Managers should not be passive and just wait for the performance limits
through. Managers must act to solve a problem before the situation
gets out of control.
Management by exception is
the basic capabilities provided by CBIS. By allowing the CBIS bear some
responsibility to monitor the physical system, the manager can be used
effectively.
Critical
Success Factors
Management concept is the
same as management by exception is called the critical success factors
(critical success factors - CSF). CSF is one of the company's activities
that impact on the company's ability to achieve its goals. Companies
usually have some CSF. For example in the automotive industry, which has
been identified CSF is a stylish, efficient dealer network, and strict control
of manufacturing costs. Information systems allow managers to follow the
CSF to report information about the CSF.
CSF concept with
management by exception in this case focused on the operation of the entire
company. In addition, the two concepts differ in terms of CSF is
relatively stable, while the elements of the exception management by exception
can change from one period to the next.
The
decision flow
Other modifications to the
general model is needed to reflect how management decisions can alter the
physical system. Just as managers need to collect data from all three
elements in the physical system (input, processing, and output). Managers
should also be able to make changes to the performance of the three elements.
Environment
Final form of the general
model reveals that the flow of resources into the company of the environment
and of the company back into the environment.
§ Use of the General System Model
Based on previous
descriptions have been clear about the form of the general system model, which
can be applied to other types of organizations that exist at present, although
the need for some modifications. For example, the use of general systems
model of the organization that produces products and services.
1. Supermarket
All the physical resources
to flow through the physical system a supermarket. The main stream is
material, namely food and other goods are sold. Current personnel consist
of a store manager, cashier, stock clerk, and other persons employed for a long
time and finally stopped. A small number of machines used, the bar code
reader at the checkout.
There are also machines
behind the scenes such as computers, calculators and telephones. Other
tools include refrigerators, display boxes, and shelves to put the merchandise
to be sold. Flow of money into the supermarket provided by the customer,
and the outflow is mainly in the form of payment to suppliers, employees and
owners.
The transformation process
includes opening the carton and arrange merchandise on the shelves. In
other words are all activities that make the product ready for sale are easy
and interesting.
Management elements in the
conceptual system composed of store managers and assistant managers. Information
processor is a computer store, which control the bar code reader and provide
prices for various goods. The computer also sends data to the headquarters
of the goods to be ordered, providing sales statistics, and so forth.
Supermarket performance
standards set jointly by the head office and store management. Standards
in the form of sales quotas and operating budget provides managers with
guidance on the level of performance to be achieved. Managers use the
observations and processing of information to monitor actual performance and
compare it with the standard.
Manager receives a report
that shows where goods are sold, and what does not. Managers responded to the
report by taking actions such as adjusting the number of orders, rearranging
shelves, a sale, as well as adding signs and shelf promotion. The report
can also indicate the hours and days in which the sale is very high and very
low. Such information is useful for hiring and scheduling
employees in order to provide adequate services for customers.
Supermarket managers use
the information from the processing of information, plus the existing
standards, as a basis for making some changes in the physical system so that
supermarkets can continue to work towards that goal.
2. Office
of the Attorney
Usually consists of a
small number of professionals who have been specially trained and authorized to
carry out their duties. Their task is more mental than physical stress activity. Very
little material flow, especially in the form of recording equipment (eg paper
and pencil).
Every law firm is a
physical system under control. In the large office, control carried out by
some so-called partners. The main responsibilities of the partners is to
ensure that the company achieve its goals.
Standard performance is
most likely not as detailed as standard in the supermarket. Attorney's office may not
attempt to handle so many cases or win a certain percentage of the trial. However,
we assume the purpose of profit, because the partners understand that profit is
the key to the continuity of operations.
The process of
transformation is to change the client with a client's legal issues are
unresolved legal issues. This is done by lawyers, which is an important
resource for the company.
Even though formal
standards may not exist, the partners know the level of performance required
the company to succeed. If the standard is not achieved intuitively, made
a decision to change the physical system. For example, if too few legal
issues that turned into a solution (less in most cases), can be hired
additional lawyers, attorneys now have replaceable, students can work part time
for the conduct of research libraries, and so on. General systems model
provides a structure for the basic elements of each of the offices of lawyers.
B. The concept
of Cost Differences Between Standard and Kaizen
§ The
concept of Kaizen and Standard Costs
Determining the standard
cost system tries to minimize the variance between budgeted costs with actual
costs. Kaizen Costing stressed to do what is necessary to achieve the
desired levels of performance in a competitive market conditions.
KAIZEN derived from
Japanese, meaning 'perfection' or 'improvement' involving continuous everyone,
whether top management, managers and all employees, because of KAIZEN is the
responsibility of each individual / person.
KAIZEN is divided into 3
segments, depending on the needs of each company, namely:
1) KAIZEN management oriented,
focusing on strategic issues and the most important logistics and provide
momentum for the pursuit of progress and moral.
2) KAIZEN oriented group, carried out
by a quality control group, the group Jinshu Kansi / volunteer management uses
statistical tools to solve problems, analyze, implement and establish standards
/ procedures.
3) KAIZEN oriented individual,
manifested in the form of advice, where one has to work smarter if they do not
want to work hard.
Some important points in
the process of implementing KAIZEN namely:
a. 3M concepts (Muda, Mura, and
Muri) in Japanese terms.
The concept was created to
reduce fatigue, improve quality, shorten time and reduce or efsiensi costs. Young
is defined as reducing waste, reducing the difference is defined as Mura and
Muri interpreted as reducing tension.
b. Move 5S (Seiri, Seiton, Seiso,
Seiketsu and Shitsuke)
Seiri means to clean up
the workplace. Seiton means saving regularly. Seiso means maintaining
the workplace in order to keep it clean. Seiketsu means of personal
hygiene. Seiketsu means of discipline, always comply with workplace
procedures.
c. The concept of PDCA in KAIZEN
Any business activity that
we do need to be done with proper procedures in order to achieve the goals that
we
hope. So PDCA
(Plan, Do, Check and Action) must be done continuously.
d. The concept of 5W + 1H
One of the tools to run
the mindset of PDCA in KAIZEN activity is to ask the basic question of
technique 5W + 1H (What, Who, Why, Where, When and How).
After successfully applying foreign technology, and produce goods on a large
scale and quality control as well as possible, the Japanese industry was
focused on perfecting the system of work in the field of production technology. This
means they have the ability to meet / follow the wishes of the customer and
market needs in a short time. The key is to mechanization, automation, and
system robotisation interrelated.
Again KAIZEN is everyone's
responsibility. KAIZEN concept is very important to explain the difference
between the views of Japanese and Western views of the management. The
most fundamental difference is the concept of "KAIZEN Japanese and
process-oriented way of thinking, while the Western-oriented way of work". KAIZEN
is just one special characteristic of Japanese companies manufacturing in,
because there are many other concepts that are always popping up, because Jepang always thought that
not a day has passed without any action should be improvements in the company.
C. Measuring
Investment Returns of State Estimates
§ Net
Present Value (NPV)
Net present value is the
current difference between the present value of benefits (benefits) to the
current present value cost (cost). NPV shows the net benefit received from
a business over the life of the business at a certain discount rate.
If:
NPV> 0 (zero) → enterprises / project feasible (feasible) to be implemented
NPV <0 (zero) → business / project) / py is not feasible (feasible) to be
implemented
NPV = 0 (zero) → business / project in a state where the BEP
TR = TC in the form of present value.
The data necessary to
calculate the NPV of the estimated investment costs, operating costs, and
maintenance as well as estimates of project benefits
planned.
From the formula above, a
conclusion can be drawn:
• The higher the income, the higher the NPV.
• The early arrival of income, the higher the NPV.
• The higher the discount rate, the lower the NPV.
If the NPV of a project is
positive, this means that the project is expected to increase corporate value
by the number of positive than the calculated NPV of the investment and that
investment is also expected to yield a higher profit rate than the desired
level of profit.
To compare the two
projects will be selected which can be done by comparing the value of the
project NPV, where NPV of a larger project that will be taken.
As for the present value
(PV) is useful to calculate the present value of a uniform series of payments
in the future of some single number that has been equated averaged at the end of
the period at an interest rate.
The formula: PV = Σni CFI = 1 / (1 r) m SV / (1 r) n
Where: PV = Present value
CF = Cash Flow
n = period of time in the n
m = the time period
r = interest rate
Sv = salvage value
§ Internal Rate Of Return (IRR)
IRR is the interest rate
that will make the present value of expected proceeds to be received (PV of
future proceeds) equals the sum present value of capital expenditure (PV of
capital outlays). Basically the "internal rate of return" must
be sought by way of "Trial and error" with the department of trial
and error. The determination of fare change is done by the method of trial
and error in the following
way:
§ Finding the cash value of net cash
flow return on rate selected at any rate above or under expected investment
returns.
§ The tariff change is to get a real
return rates.
IRR is an indicator of the
efficiency of an investment, as opposed to NPV, which indicates value or an
amount of money. IRR is the effective annual compounded return rate which
can be generated from an investment or the yield of an investment. A
project / investment can be done if the rate of return return greater than that
received when we make investments in other places (banks, bonds).
To determine the magnitude
of the IRR must be calculated first and NPV2 NPV1 by trial and error. If
NPV1 discount factor is positive then the second must be greater than the SOCC,
and vice versa.
From these experiments it
was between the IRR and NPV NPV is positive, negative, namely the NPV = 0.
Comparison of NPV and IRR. If there is an independent project that the NPV
and IRR will always give the same recommendation to accept or reject the
proposed project, but if there is a mutually exclusive projects, NPV and IRR
does not always give the same recommendation.
This ni caused by two
conditions:
§ The size of different projects, one
larger than the others.
§ The difference in time. The
timing of the cash flow from two different projects. One project cash flow
occurred in the early years of the project while others aksnya flow occurred in
recent years.
The point is to projects that are mutually exclusive, then the right choice is
the highest NPV projects.
If oppurtunity Cost
§ Social Capital (SOCC)
Social costs borne by
society, usually used as the discount factor. SOCC is highly related to
the premises IRR, do the following:
If
IRR> SOCC is said to be feasible project
IRR = SOCC means the project on BEP
IRR <SOCC said that the project is not feasible.
D. The
calculation process of Multinational Cost of Capital
Capital costs (cost of capital) have a large
effect on the value of a multinational corporation (MNC). To fund its
activities, MNC using the capital structure (is the proportion between debt and equity) that
can minimize the cost of capital, and thereby maximize the value of MNC.
§ Cost of Capital
Capital of an enterprise
consisting of equity and debt. The cost of retained earnings is opurtunity costs. The cost of
new common stock also represents a opportunity cost. These costs exceed the
cost of retained earnings because it contains loads associated with the
issuance of new shares. The cost of corporate debt is the interest to be
borne by the company. The Company attempts to use a capital structure that
will minimize their cost of capital. Cost of capital weighted average
(which can be measured is symbolized by the equation:
Where D is the amount of
corporate debt, Kd is the cost of debt before taxes, t is the corporate tax
rate, E is the amount of corporate equity, and to the cost of equity. The
advantage of using debt because interest payments are tax deductible. However,
the greater use of debt increases the likelihood of bankruptcy.Where D is the amount of
corporate debt, Kd is the cost of debt before taxes, t is the corporate tax
rate, E is the amount of corporate equity, and to the cost of equity. The
advantage of using debt because interest payments are tax deductible. However,
the greater use of debt increases the likelihood of bankruptcy.
§ Cost of Capital of Multinational Companies
Special characteristics
that distinguish it from multinationals with purely domestic firms, namely:
1. Company
Size
MNC which often borrow
substantial amounts may obtain preferential treatment of creditors, thereby
reducing their capital costs. In addition, the capitalization of the stock
or the issuance of those bonds are relatively large to enable them to lower the
cost of emissions as a percentage of the emissions. It should be
remembered that this is solely due to the size of the MNC, not by the level of
MNC involvement in international business. Namely, any purely domestic
companies are treated the same if the size is large. But the company's
growth could be restrained if it is not going to expand into international
markets. Because multinational companies can achieve growth easily than
purely domestic firms, they may be able to achieve the size necessary to
achieve preferential treatment of creditors.
2. Access to the International
Capital Market
Multinational companies
can get funding from international capital markets. Because the cost of
funding varies between markets, MNC access to the international capital markets
enabled it to obtain funds with lower costs than purely domestic firms. In
addition, the company can get the children of local funds at a cheaper cost
than the parent company itself, if the interest rates prevailing in the country
is relatively low room.Form of such financing can lower the cost of capital,
and not always raise the MNC's exposure to exchange rate risk, because the
revenue generated by the subsidiary is likely to be denominated in the same
currency exchange of the loan. In this case, the subsidiary does not have
to rely on the financing needs of the parent, although it requires a number of
managerial assistance from the parent
3. International Diversification
Cost of capital of a
company closely linked to the probability of bankruptcy. If a company's
cash inflows derived from various sources around the world, cash flows may be
more stable. This reasoning is based on the assumption that total sales
will not be significantly affected by one single economy. As far as
individual countries independently of each other, the net cash flows from a
portfolio consisting of its subsidiaries will contain a lower variability,
which can reduce the probability of bankruptcy and thereby lower the cost of
capital
4. Against Foreign Exchange Risk
Exposure
Cash flow of a
multi-national companies may be more volatile than cash flows of existing
domestic firms in the same industry, if cash flow is very ekpos to exchange
rate risk. Companies are more exposed to fluctuations in exchange rates
will usually have a distribution of cash flow is more turbulent periods which
shall come. Because of the possibility of bankruptcy is higher if the
future cash flows more uncertain,
Exposure to exchange rate could lead to higher capital costs
5. Against the Country Risk Exposure
A multinational company
establish subsidiaries abroad to face the possibility of confiscation of the
assets of the company by the government AAK guests. If the assets were
confiscated and reasonable compensation is not provided, the probability of
bankruptcy increases MNC. The higher the MNC assets are invested abroad
the higher the probability of bankruptcy (and the higher the cost of capital),
ceteris paribus.
6. The forms of Country Risk
Not as dangerous as the
confiscation of assets, although it affects the cash flows of multinational
companies, such as changes in tax laws by the government guests, and so forth. For
example, Exxon Corporation has extensive experience in assessing the
feasibility and potential overseas. If Exxon saw no sign of the
alternation of government or tax policy in a country, Exxon will add a premium
to the required rate of return of project-related. In general, the first
three factors have a positive relationship with capital costs of multinational
corporations, while exchange rate risk and country risk has a negative
relationship.
§ Comparison of Cost of Capital Using the CAPM
To assess how the desired
rate of return is different from the multinational companies that desired rate
of return by purely domestic firms, capital asset pricing model (CAPM)
can be applied. Return to CAPM defines the desired level (to) from the stock as:
Where:
Rf = risk-free rate of return
km = rate of return on the market
B = Beta of the stock CAPM implies that the desired rate of return of shares of
a company is a positive function of:
(1) risk-free interest rate,
(2) rate of return on the market, and
(3) Beta of the stock
Beta represents the
sensitivity of stock returns against market returns (stock price index is
usually used as a substitute for market returns). A multinational company
does not have any control on the risk-free interest rate or market rate of
return, but can affect the beta.
Multinational companies
are able to increase sales volume overseas will be able to lower the beta of
the shares, thus, reducing the rate of return desired by investors. So the
cost of capital will decrease if the multinational companies to increase sales
volume. Supporters argued that the CAPM beta of the project can use to
determine required rate of return of the project. Beta of the project
represents the sensitivity of cash flows (which produced the project) to market
conditions. A project that isolated from market conditions will have a low
beta. For a highly diversified multinational corporation, which receives
the cash flow generated by several projects, each project contains two types of
risk:
(1) non-volatility of cash flows for the company's unique systematic, and
(2) Risk systematically
CAPM theory states that
non-systematic risk of the project can be ignored, because it can be
diversified. However, systematic risk can not be diversified, because it
affects all projects in the same way. The lower the beta of the project,
the lower the systematic risk of the project, and the lower the required return
of such a project. If a multinational project to show a lower beta than a
purely domestic enterprise project, then the required return of MNC project
should be lower. If the required return is low, meaning the cost of
capital is also low. The theory of capital asset pricing (CAP) thus
supporting the assumption that the capital cost of the multinational companies
are generally lower than the cost of capital of domestic companies, for reasons
that have been presented. Even so, it must be stressed here that the
non-systematic risk of the project remains as relevant by a number of
multinational companies. And if the risk is also taken into account in
assessing the risks of the project, the required return of MNC projects are not
necessarily lower than the desired rate of return on projects purely domestic
firms.
In fact, a large-scale
projects in developing countries where political conditions are very unstable
and has a higher country risk would be considered too risky by many
multinational companies, even though the cash flow to be generated by this project
have no correlation with the
U.S. market. This implies that multinational companies may be looking at
non-systematic risk as an important factor when determining the required return
from overseas projects. If it is assumed that markets are segmented from
each other, can be justified to use the U.S. market as measured beta of U.S.
MNC's projects. If
U.S. investors to invest some of those in the U.S., their investments are
systematically influenced by the U.S. market. Multinational companies are
implementing the project had a low beta-beta may be able to lower their own
(ie, the sensitivity of their stock price to the market index). Companies
that have a low beta will be more attractive to U.S. investors because it
offers many benefits of diversification. Because of increasingly
integrated markets from time to time, one might argue that the global market is
a market that is more permanent than the U.S. market for U.S. multinationals. That
is, if investors buy stock from many countries, the value of their investment
will be strongly influenced by global market conditions, not just the U.S.
market conditions.
Consequently, they prefer
to invest in companies that have a low sensitivity to global market conditions
to get more benefits of diversification. Multinational companies are able
to implement projects that somewhat insulated from global market conditions
will be considered as a more attractive investment vehicle for investors. Although
increasingly integrated markets, U.S. investors still tend to focus on U.S.
stocks, probably due to low transaction costs and the cost of information
collection. Thus, their investments are systematically influenced by U.S.
market conditions; this made them very concerned about the factors that affect
the U.S. market.
In conclusion, we can not
state with certainty that multinational companies will have lower capital costs
than purely domestic firms that operate in the same industry. However, we can use this
discussion to understand why a multinational corporation trying to take full
advantage of certain aspects which will lower the cost of capital and vice
versa, to minimize exposure to those aspects that will raise the cost of
capital.
Planning and management
control is critical for the company, in this multinational company. However,
the reduction in national trade barriers continuously, a floating currency,
sovereign risk, restrictions on sending funds across national borders,
differences in national tax systems, differences in the level of interest rates
and commodity prices and the effect of changing equity to assets, earnings ,
and the cost of capital is a variable that complicates management decisions. Global
competition and rapid dissemination of information to support the limited
national differences in management accounting practices. Additional
pressures include, among others, changes in markets and technologies, the
growth of privatization, incentive costs, and performance as well as
coordination of global operations through joint ventures and other strategic
links.
Company in the conduct of
management control requires a planning tool that can identify the relevant
factors in the future, scanning the external and internal environment. The tool helps companies
identify opportunities and challenges. One such tool is the WOTS-UP
analysis regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the company relating to the
company's operating environment. Accountants can also help corporate
planners to obtain useful data in strategic planning decisions.
Then, the decision to
invest abroad is a very important element in the global strategy of a
multinational company. Investment risk, followed by the foreign
environment, complex and constantly changing. Formal planning is a must
and is generally performed in a capital budgeting framework that compares the
benefits and costs of the proposed investment. Differences in tax law,
accounting system, the rate of inflation, the risk of nationalization, currency
framework, market segmentation, restrictions on the transfer of retained
earnings, and differences in language and culture adds to the complexity of
elements that are rarely found in domestic environments.
Adaptation by
multinational companies for investment planning models have traditionally been
carried out in three areas of measurement:
a) Determine the relevant returns for
multinational investment.
A manager must determine
the relevant rate of return on foreign investment opportunities analisis remedy. However,
the relevant rate of return is a matter of point of view of the project or the
parent company abroad. Returns from these two points of view can differ
significantly. Financial managers need to meet multiple objectives by
providing a response to investor groups and non investor in the
organization and the environment. If a foreign investment does not promise
a return on risk adjusted returns that value is obtained from local
competitors, the parent company's shareholders would be better to invest
directly in local companies.
b) Measuring cash flow expectations.
For managers of
multinational companies, measuring the expected cash flows of a foreign
investment is quite a challenge. Revenue estimates are based on projected
sales and billing experience antipasti. Operations and local tax burden
equally predictable. This process should also consider the impact of
changes and fluctuations of the currency on expectations of return on foreign
currency.
c) Calculate the cost of multinational
capital.
For a control system for a
multinational company to function properly, the system typically used by many
multinational companies to control its foreign operations in many respects much
the same as those used domestically. Parts of the system are generally
shipped out include financial control and budget as well as the tendency to
apply the same standard that was developed to evaluate the domestic operations.
Once the strategic goals
and capital budgets are created, the management focus on short-term planning. Short-term
planning includes making the operating budget or profit plan when needed in the
organization. Plan earnings are the basis for forecasting cash management,
operating decisions, and management compensation schemes.
Plan of the company income
statements of foreign affiliates is first converted according to accounting
principles adopted in the parent company's country of origin and translated
from local currencies into the currency of the parent.
E. Problems
and Design Complexity in Finance and Control Systems Information on
Multinational Enterprises
Clear distance is a
hassle. Caused by geography, formal information communication generally
replace the personal contact between the local operations manager with office
management.
Three global information
technology strategy, each of which is associated with certain types of
multinational organizations. Achieved success depends on the suitability
of the design of systems with corporate strategy:
a) The spread of low to high centralization. Used by smaller organizations
with limited international business operations and information systems need to
dominate the domestic.
b) High with a spread of low centralization. Local subsidiary is given a
significant influence on the development of strategies relating to technology
and information systems Himself.
c) High with a spread of high centralization. Following the global
information technology strategy execution locally by global companies with
strategic alliances throughout the world. Information system is designed
to reflect the needs of the company adapted to local conditions.
Management Accountant to
prepare some information for the management of companies, ranging from data
collection to reporting estimates of different types of liquidity and
operational expenditure. For each group of data submitted by the company
management should determine the relevant time period for the report, the level
of accuracy required, the frequency of reporting and the costs and benefits of
depreciation and timely delivery.
Here also the
environmental factors that influence the use of information generated
translation. Reports from overseas operations of multinational companies
are generally translated into U.S. dollar equivalent value of the manager's
office in the U.S. to evaluate their investment in dollars.
F. Exchange
Rate Variance
Three rates of exchange
may be used when preparing the draft operating budget at the beginning of the
period:
a) The exchange rate when the budget prepared place.
b) The exchange rate is expected to apply at the end of budget period
(projection rate).
c) The exchange rate at the end of the period when the budget be adjusted if
changes in the exchange rate (closing rate).
G. Special difficulties in
Designing and Implementing Performance Evaluation System Multinationals
Evaluation of performance
on certain multinational companies are classified into three levels, namely:
1) Levels of Leadership (Director and above),
2) Supervisors and above, and
3) Employees of low (blue). In the evaluation of the directors to the top,
the assessment is directed "leadership framework" which includes 13
behaviors were classified into 4 groups:
a. Inspire
people consisting of:
§ Leading the
Is the ability of civil
servants and make them confident in doing something so That They could create
the appearance was consistent with the principles of management and leadership
with the translation as follows: Related to keep all relevant information and
community, increase effectiveness of work teams and team principal to
success.
§ Developing
people
Is to help employees to
identify needs for the successful development needs, encourage employees to
learn to provide suitable support. With the translation as follows:
Provide a detailed command ensures that the command is understood, and Cleary
look and create a positive environment for long-term development.
§ Practice
what you preach
Is it to be consistent
with the principles and values Realizing, including "the passage of
communication" even in difficult times.
b. Opening up, consisting of:
§ Knowing
yourself
Is the ability to
precisely identify and understand the power of yourself and fix it as well as
applied and implemented in effect, order was understood in a person's
effectiveness in the organization. And have extensive self-care and deep. Act
as a constant (stable) on the influence of their power to correct and
compensate for weaknesses.
§ Insight
Is the ability to identify
relationships between facts, ideas and the situation was not clear and
collecting it to solve problems that require priority, clarify and explain the
complex situation that has been given / created opportunity.
§ Courage
Associated with the
capacity and confidence of employees in their opinion, and allowed to make
decisions or choices, along with concerns Evaluating the risks and
responsibilities in dealing with critical situations and challenges.
§ Curiosity
An employee openly
curiosity to learn more about the environment by asking questions to think or
do research It appears simple, broad and constant.
§ Service
orientation
Is the desire to help or
serve the customer with an understanding of customer expectations and needs,
providing quality services that are long lasting and mutually beneficial as
well as a long-term perspective on the merits.
c. Calls
to the other, consisting of:
§ Proactive cooperation
Whether working with
others through a commitment to Achieve object groups, understand their needs
and other targets and adapting own views and the views, if appropriate behavior
through personal contribution to effective teamwork.
§ Impact:
Reassure and Others
Is convinced, directly or
indirectly to obtain commitment to the project idea or action that the
Organization of interest through the use of a lot of convincing arguments,
generate interest in others by using the influence of an integrated strategy.
d. Add value, comprising:
§ The focus
Ambition is to meet the
target performance / quality standards and work continuously to Obtain Suitable
methods of process improvement, motivation to Achieve the target to increase
employment and maximize employment in the long run.
§ Initiative
Make the employee is to
act proactively (to act and think in simple terms) so that the initiative was
not just reacted to the situation, but also anticipating for a long time and do
it well.
§ Innovation
/ Renovation
Display behavior to
receive the 'status quo' challenges in improving the control and new ideas so
that there is a change up and running efficiently.
H. Overcome
the effect of inflation and exchange rate fluctuations against the Performance
Measurement
Multinationals
For multinational
companies, foreign currency fluctuation level of uncertainty resulting from the
company's operations in the international arena. Eye risk management
refers to enterprise risk management transactions, economic, and translation. Transaction
risk refers to the likelihood that cash transactions in the future will be
influenced by changes in exchange rates. Economic risk refers to the
possibility that the present value of cash flow company in the future will be
influenced by exchange rate fluctuations.
One way to overcome
problems of economic risk and the risk of the transaction is to hedge
(hedging). Swap contracts require the buyer before a certain currency with
a certain exchange rate (forward rate) at a predetermined date in the future. In
the face translational risk, management can give a report in dollar-denominated
and local multinational management can know the true state of the local
divisions and the impact of foreign currency translation.
Multinational companies
use a system of decentralized Because It Gives advantage to the country of
origin and distribution of foreign divisions. These advantages include:
1) local managers are able to produce better decisions through the use of local
information.
2) local managers can provide more timely responses to changing circumstances.
3) center manager is not possible to understand all of products and markets.
4) Train and Motivate local managers to make decisions daily operations so that
top management can focus was more on long-term problems.
Performance measurement in
multinational companies should separate the evaluation of a division manager
with evaluation of this division. Managers should be evaluated based on
revenue and costs incurred. Once the manager is evaluated, a subsidiary of
the financial statements can be tailored to the parent company's currency and
the cost can be allocated beyond the control of managers. Environmental
factors such as social culture, economic, political, legal, and differ in one
country from another country is out of control, but managers will affect
company profits and ROI.
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